Titanium Metal

Chapter 1: What is Titanium Metal?

History

Titanium metal, with the symbol Ti, is the ninth most abundant element on the earth’s crust. It does not occur in large deposits, yet small amounts of titanium are found in almost every rock. Titanium is a shiny gray metal with a low corrosion rate and is used for a variety of applications. It was discovered by William Gregor, an English chemist and mineralogist, in 1791, who thought it was a compound but realized in 1795 it was an independent element. Titanium was named by Martin Heinrich Klaproth, a German chemist, after the Titans of Greek Mythology.

Periodic Placement

Titanium is placed in D-Block in the periodic table as the first element. It is classified as a transition metal with atomic number 22, which means it has 22 electrons and 22 protons; it has an atomic weight of 47.867 Daltons. Titanium belongs to period 4 and group 4 of the periodic table because of its electronic configuration. The last two electrons of titanium metal reside in the fourth orbital, making the configuration 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d² 4s². This electronic configuration explains the chemical bonds of the element and some other properties.

Occurrence

Titanium constitutes 0.44 percent of the earth’s crust, and it is widely distributed. Ninety percent (90%) of the titanium occurs in the form of ilmenite minerals in the earth's crust. Ilmenite minerals are compounds of iron, titanium, and oxygen called iron titanium oxide with the symbol FeTio₃. The remaining amount of titanium is found in the form of anatase, perovskite, rutile, leucoxene, sphene, and other minerals. These minerals are found in the form of compounds in sand, rocks, soils, and clays. It can also be found elsewhere in nature: in plants, natural waters, animals, stars, and meteorites.

Oxidation States and Isotopes

Titanium metal is known to have five stable isotopes. These include titanium-46, titanium-47, titanium-48, titanium-49, and titanium-50. The most abundant isotope of titanium metal is titanium-48 with 73.8% natural abundance, but there are numerous radioisotopes of titanium. Today, 21 radioisotopes of titanium metal are known; the most stable are titanium-44, titanium-45, titanium-51, and titanium-52. All four stable radioisotopes have a different half-life. The half-life of titanium-44 is 63 years, titanium-45 has a half-life of 184.8 minutes, titanium-51 has a half-life of 5.76 minutes, and titanium-52 has a half-life of 1.7 minutes.

Chapter 2: Properties of Titanium metals

Physical Properties

Titanium metal is physiologically inert and considered to have superior physical properties. It has a high strength-to-weight ratio, which makes it ideal for applications in which light weight and strength are essential, such as joint replacement and dental implants. It has a low density of 4.5 g/cm³ with a melting point of more than 3000 °F (1650 °C) and boiling point of 5948 °F (3287 °C). High melting and boiling points make it a very useful metal in terms of refractory properties.

When placed in an oxygen-free environment, titanium is very ductile. Its lustrous, gray-white appearance makes it useful for coating metal or for display. Titanium dioxide, in pure form, is practically clear, with a high refractive index, creating an optical dispersion higher than that of a diamond.

Titanium has low thermal and electrical conductivity compared to other metals, although it exhibits superconducting properties when cooled below its critical temperature of 0.49 K. When titanium is in its elemental form and bombarded with deuterons, it can become highly radioactive.

Pure titanium is almost 99.2% pure and is a lustrous metal with low density and high corrosion resistance. It is even resistant to strong liquids such as sulfuric acid, wet chlorine gas, chloride solutions, hydrochloric acid, and most organic acids.

Commercially pure titanium is considered to be a strong metal with an ultimate tensile strength of 434 MPa that makes 63,000 psi, which is equal to the strength of a low-grade steel alloy. This means titanium can be used as a replacement for steel, a major benefit, as it is 45% lighter than steel, twice as strong as aluminum, and 60% denser.

When titanium is mixed with other metals, the alloys can reach a tensile strength of more than 1400 MPa or 200,000 psi. However, when heated to over 806 °F (430 °C), titanium can lose its strength. It is a dimorphic element with a hexagonal form that rapidly converts into a body-centered cube at 1616 °F (880 °C), a transition that happens dramatically when 1616 °F is reached. When the element is in cubic β form, the specific heat becomes constant.

Chemical Properties

The chemical behavior of titanium metal shows significant similarities with that of zirconium and silica. Titanium, zirconium, and silica all belong to the first transition group in the periodic table. Titanium resides in group 4 (IVB) of the periodic table, which means it is in the middle. The arrangement of elements in the periodic chart shows how the elements are related to one another chemically. As it is in the middle of the table, we know titanium exhibits properties between those of metals and non-metals. For example, just like magnesium and aluminum, titanium metal and its alloys immediately oxidize whenever exposed to the air. Titanium rapidly starts to react with oxygen molecules at around 1,200 °C, and it can exhibit the same behavior at a reduced temperature of 610 °C when the oxygen is in pure form. Each reaction produces titanium dioxide. Titanium behaves as an inert element in the presence of oxygen and water, which means it does not react with oxygen and water at ambient temperature conditions. The reason for such behavior is titanium tends to create a passive oxide coating, which behaves as a protector for the material to oxidize further. This protective layer can be as thin as 1 – 2 nm and as thick as 25 nm. It depends upon the period of time the bulk metal is exposed to oxygen. It takes almost four years to create a 25nm thick layer.

This protective layer enables titanium to become an excellent corrosion-resistant element—almost as effective as platinum. This property makes it resistant to even strong liquids such as sulfuric acid, moist chlorine gas, chloride solutions, hydrochloric acid, and most organic acids. However, it can be corroded when exposed to concentrated acids. Thermodynamically, titanium is a very reactive metal due to its negative redox potential, and it burns in the atmosphere at a temperature lower than its melting point. It can react with chlorine at 550 °C and can also combine with other halogen gases although it absorbs hydrogen. The melting of titanium can only occur in a chemically inert atmosphere such as a vacuum. Titanium's thermodynamic properties do not allow it to melt in normal conditions, because it becomes more reactive at elevated temperatures and can catch fire if the oxygen molecules are present in its environment. However, as mentioned before, titanium is quite unreactive in general.

Titanium is a transition metal that also exhibits similarities in its chemical behavior, especially in lower oxidation states, to that of chrome and vanadium. It has various oxidation states, including 4+, 3+, and 2+. However, the oxidation state 4+ is the most stable. Titanium oxide ore reduces with water vapors and forms dioxides and hydrogen. It reacts in the same manner with hot concentrated acids—with a minor difference. When reacting to hot concentrated acids, it creates chlorhydric acid and trichlorides.

The chemical properties chart of titanium is given in Table - 2

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Chapter 3: Titanium Metal Compounds & Properties

Titanium chemistry is dominated by the titanium oxidation state +4 because it is the most stable state in which titanium occurs. However, the +3-oxidation state of titanium compounds is also common. Naturally, titanium complexes have an octahedral coordination geometry, but one notable exception here is TiCl₄. This compound is called titanium tetrachloride, and it has a tetrahedral geometry. This geometry is due to the high oxidation state of the titanium tetrachloride, which results in a higher degree of covalent bond. In the transition metal only, titanium is known to form aqua Ti (IV) complexes: water ligand titanium ion complexes.

Oxides, Sulfides, and Alkoxides

The term titanates indicates the titanium (IV) compounds: the titanium tetra(element) compounds, such as TiCl₄, the titanium tetrachloride, and BaTio₃, barium titanate. These compounds are known for their piezoelectric properties and serve well in the interconversion of sound and electricity as transducers. The mineral in which titanium is found in the most abundance, ilmenite, is also a titanate. Ilmenite is a FeTio₃ compound. Stars, rubies, and sapphires also have titanium dioxide Tio₂ properties of asterism. This is the reason they have star-forming shine. The most important oxide of all titanium oxides is Tio₂; titanium dioxide occurs in three different polymorphous states: rutile, anatase, and brookite. All three polymorphous states are white di-magnetic solids.

There are numerous titanium suboxides known today. The reduced stoichiometries of titanium dioxide are attained by the spraying of atmospheric plasma. The titanium (III, IV) oxide, Ti₃O₅ is a purple-colored semiconductor that is obtained from the reduction process of Titanium dioxide Tio₂ in the presence of hydrogen gas at elevated temperatures. The titanium (III, IV) oxide is an ideal compound to vapor-coat surfaces with titanium oxide for corrosion resistance and aesthetic purposes.

The alkoxides of titanium are obtained by reacting titanium tetrachloride with alcohols. These are ideally used for depositing solid titanium dioxides with the help of the sol-gel process in industries. Additionally, titanium iso-prop-oxide is used in the preparation of chiral organic compounds with the help of the Sharpless epoxidation process. Titanium also has a variety of sulfite compounds. However, titanium disulfide is the only titanium sulfide regularly used. It has a layered structure and serves as a cathode in the manufacturing of lithium-ion batteries.

Nitrides and Carbides

Titanium nitrides and carbides are members of the refractory transition family. The nitrides of titanium have properties of both covalent compounds. They exhibit extreme hardness, high melting and boiling points, thermodynamic stability, and high thermal and electrical conductivity. Titanium nitride, TiN, has a hardness of 9.0 on the Mohs scale, which is the same hardness as sapphire and carborundum. Because of this extreme hardness property, it is used as a coating material for cutting tools; for example, drill bits are coated with titanium nitride and carbides. It is also used for coating for aesthetic purposes because it gives a shiny gold-colored finish. It also serves as a barrier material in the fabrication of semiconductors.

Halides

The most common halide of titanium is titanium tetrachloride, TiCl4, which is a colorless and volatile liquid. The industrial titanium tetrachloride is yellowish and tends to hydrolyze in the air with spectacular emission of white-colored clouds. Titanium tetrachloride is also used in the extraction of titanium metal from its ores. This process is called the Kroll process. Additionally, it serves to obtain titanium dioxide, which is used in white-colored paints. Titanium halides are widely used as a Lewis acid. Titanium tetraiodide, TiI₄, another halide of titanium, is obtained from the Van Arkel process as high purity titanium metal. Titanium (III) and titanium (II) can also form stable halides. An important example is titanium trichloride and titanium dichloride. These compounds are used as a catalyst in the production of polyolefins. They also serve as reducing agents in organic chemistry.

Organometallic Complexes

The most commonly known organometallic compound of titanium is titanocene-dichloride, (C₅H₅)₂TiCl₂. The titanium organometallic complexes are studied intensively for polymerization catalysts. Other organometallic complexes of titanium include Petasis reagent and Tebbe’s reagent.

Chapter 4: Titanium Metal Fabrication Process

The production of titanium metal is carried out by a process called the Kroll process. This process has five stages. The first stage is called extraction, the second is called purification, the third is called sponge production, the fourth involves alloy creation, and lastly, the fifth step is forming and shaping. Because every step is time-consuming and costly, no industry yet performs all five. Most industries carry out a single stage of this process. For example, some manufacturers specialize in sponge production, and others only create the alloys.

Extraction

The first step of the Kroll process is the extraction of titanium ores. The manufacturer receives the titanium ores from mines. These ores can be in the form of ilmenite, rutile, or any other mineral of titanium. Rutile is usually used in its natural form. However, ilmenite needs processing that becomes the first step to remove the iron so that the remaining part will have 85% or titanium dioxide. For this process, these ores are placed inside a fluidized bed reactor with chlorine and carbon and are heated to an elevated temperature of 900 °C. The chemical reaction takes place, which results in the creation of titanium tetrachloride in impure form and carbon monoxide as a by-product. The impurities are present in the TiCl₄ because after removing iron, titanium dioxide is not yet pure.

Purification

In this step, the TiCl₄ is put inside a large distillation tank for heating. The impurities present are separated in this step by fractional distillation and precipitation methods. These two methods remove all impurities, including vanadium, silicon, magnesium, zirconium, and iron.

Sponge Formation

The third stage of the Kroll process is sponge formation. In this stage, the purified titanium tetrachloride is emptied into a stainless steel reactor vessel in liquid form. After the transfer, the magnesium is added to the vessel and the mixture is heated to the temperature of 1100 °C in order for magnesium to react with chlorine and produce magnesium chloride. There is a chance that oxygen and nitrogen might be present in the air, so argon gas is pumped into the vessel to remove the air to avoid any reaction with oxygen and nitrogen. The titanium left in the vessel is not pure and in solid form because the melting point of titanium is much higher. This titanium solid is now removed from the vessel by a boring process and treated with a mixture of water and hydrochloric acid. This is to remove any excess of magnesium and magnesium chloride. At the end of this stage, the titanium obtained is in sponge form, hence the name sponge formation.

Alloy Creation

In the fourth stage, the pure titanium sponge is mixed with different alloys and scrap metals to create usable alloys with the help of a consumable-electrode arc furnace. After melting and mixing all required metals in the required proportion, the mass is then compacted and welded to form a sponge electrode. This sponge electrode is melted in a vacuum arc furnace to form ingots. These ingots are usually melted again and again to fabricate commercially acceptable ingots.

Forming and Shaping

In the last stage of the Kroll process, the ingots are removed from the furnace, inspected for defects, then sent out to be used to create titanium alloy goods. The properties of each ingot are checked to ensure they meet the requirements of customers. The ingots go through various processes such as welding, forming, casting, forging, powder metallurgy, etc. to be shaped into the finish well. It all depends upon the specification of the required product.

Byproducts of the Kroll Process

During the Kroll process, when the titanium is separated from the impurities, a significant amount of magnesium and magnesium chloride is left behind. This by-product of the Kroll process is recycled immediately in a recycling cell. The recycling cell separates the magnesium and chlorine into their stable forms. I.e., magnesium in solid form and chlorine in gas form. The chlorine gas is collected from the top of the recycling cell, and both of these components are used again in the Kroll process.

Chapter 5: Pure Titanium and Its Grades

Titanium in its pure form comes in various grades that are suitable for specific applications. Titanium CP4, aka Grade – 1, is the softest grade with the highest ductility, toughness, and corrosion resistance. Due to its cold forming characteristics and brilliant welding properties, it is popular in the architecture, automotive, medical, and processing industries. This grade is available in the form of bars, flanges, sheets, welding wires, and forgings.

Another grade that has excellent cold forming properties with corrosion resistance and welding properties is CP3 – Grade 2. It is used in aerospace, automotive chemical architecture, marine, and medical industries.

CP2 – Grade 3 is considered to be stronger than previous grades.

CP1-Grade 4 titanium is the strongest and most corrosion resistant but has lower ductility. It is commonly used in medical and aerospace applications.

Grade 7 titanium has the best mechanical and physical properties with excellent fabrication and welding properties. It is even corrosion-resistant to reducing acids.

Grade 11 - CP Ti-0.15Pd has similar properties to Grade 2.

The following tables indicate the available standards & forms of pure titanium grades.

The following tables indicate the available standards of titanium grades.

Alloy Based Titanium Grades

The alloy-based titanium grades include Grade-5, 6, 9, 12, 19, 23, and others. These types of alloys have excellent toughness and high strength combined with good welding and fabrication properties. Grade 9 is used at higher temperatures than the others. Grade 12 has enhanced corrosion-resistance because of different chemical compositions. Grade 19 and 23 offer high resistance to stress and creep. Other grades, such as 6Al-6V-2Sn – Titanium 6-6-2 and Titanium 6Al-2Sn-4Zr-2Mo – Titanium 6-2-4-2, are two-phased alloys called alpha-beta alloys. They are heat-treatable alloys with lower toughness and ductility but high strength. Cold forming and welding are difficult with these types of grades because of their high strength. These grades are good for welding by the inert gas shielded and fusion welding process although the area affected will have less toughness and ductility than the original material.

Chapter 6: Titanium Products

Products made with titanium are high-performance and durable. These products include jewelry, medical instruments, scissors, and bicycle frames. For industrial products, titanium is alloyed with iron, aluminum, nickel, and molybdenum to make jet engines, spacecraft, and military hardware. It has the strength of steel with half its weight.

Titanium Wire

Titanium wire is a common form of titanium and comes in several forms, from pure titanium to titanium nickel alloy wire. Each type of titanium wire has different uses, from glass holders to welding wire. Titanium wire has all of the properties of titanium, including corrosion resistance, strength, non-magnetism, biocompatibility, and excellent shape memory.

Although titanium wire has many beneficial properties, its major use is as welding wire for pipes, repairing turbine discs, and welding casings. Other uses include the manufacture of load-bearing springs, bearings, and fasteners.

Titanium Bars

Titanium bar stock has an exceptionally high strength-to-weight ratio, making it ideal for applications that require strong metal support. As a light, strong, and durable metal, it is widely used for aircraft construction and sporting equipment. Titanium bar stock is available in grades 1 to 12, with grade 5 being the most widely used due to its formability, low creep rate, and resistance to corrosion cracking.

Grade 5 titanium bar stock is also the strongest of the titanium alloys because it is alloyed with aluminum and vanadium. It is often used for turbine blades, fasteners, and spacer rings.

Titanium Foil

Titanium foil is a special form of titanium available in plates, strips, coils, or sheets with a thickness less than 0.1 mm. Due to their exceptional strength, durability, and low density, titanium foil is made from titanium grades 2 and 5. When heat treated, titanium foil becomes highly resistant to fluctuations in temperature, making it ideal for use in the oil and gas industry.

Titanium Fasteners

There are several varieties of titanium fasteners, including different types of screws. Fasteners made of titanium are lightweight, with high tensile strength and good corrosion resistance. In addition, since they have a high melting point, they are ideal for applications involving extreme temperatures, such as aerospace and medical applications. As with titanium foil, fasteners are made of grade 2 or grade 5 titanium.

Titanium Pipes

Titanium piping is popular due to its cost-effectiveness since it is resistant to damage caused by corrosion. Although the initial cost of titanium piping is higher than other materials, such as graphite, ceramic, and PTFE, the cost can be amortized over its long lifespan. As with many titanium products, titanium piping has exceptional strength and low density that decreases its structural weight. Unlike other piping materials, it can be configured to fit in small spaces and still retain its strength.

Titanium Flanges

Titanium flanges are used to connect titanium pipes and split pipe networks for inspection and cleaning purposes. Grade 2 titanium is most commonly used to manufacture flanges due to its low density, making it ideal for applications where weight may be an issue. In addition, its corrosion resistance and strength are why it is used for marine applications, chemical processing, and desalination piping.

Titanium Plates

The most outstanding characteristic of titanium plates is its strength-to-weight ratio, which makes it ideal for aircraft and spacecraft manufacturing. The five methods used to produce titanium plates are casting, forging, rolling, extrusion, and laser cutting. The choice of production process determines the exact specifications of titanium plating and the applications where it can be used.

Titanium Rods

Titanium rods come in various forms, including square, hexagonal, and flat. The different shapes of titanium rods make them easy to store and transport. They are manufactured using forging, rolling, extrusion, casting, and spinning. Though they can be used as structural supports, they are normally melted down to create other titanium products.

Titanium Sheets

As with titanium plates, titanium sheets are a widely used metal material due to titanium's advantageous properties. The exceptional strength of titanium makes sheets of titanium ideal for applications that require a lightweight but strong metal for protection. In addition, titanium's non-magnetic and biocompatible properties make it ideal for medical implants and aerospace manufacturing. Titanium sheets are available in various grades depending on the needs of an application. Grade 2 and grade 5 are the most commonly used, with other grades used to fit a specific application.

Titanium Tubing

One evident characteristic of titanium tubing is how it maintains its positive properties, requires limited repair, and is long-lasting enough to offset its initial costs. Processes that involve the use of corrosive chemicals rely on the strength of titanium tubing. Additionally, fuel lines and valves depend on titanium tubing as a method of protection from corrosion, breakage, failure, and chemical leaks.

Titanium's strength, endurance, and dependability have made it highly valued for various processes and applications. The products listed here are a sampling of how this valuable metal has been used to enhance and improve crucial applications.

Chapter 7: Titanium Metal Applications

Medical Industry

Titanium plays a significant role in the medical industry because of its biocompatibility. It is a non-toxic material that has been used in many surgical tools and implants. From hip ball socket replacement to dental implants, titanium has been used in the medical industry for various purposes. These implants can stay in place for more than 20 years. The titanium implants usually contain about 4% of vanadium and 4% to 6% of aluminum.

Titanium has an ability to Osseo-integrate, which allows us to use it in dental implants and orthopedic implants that can last for 30 years. Due to lower modulus elasticity, titanium implants allow the skeletal load to be distributed equally between the bone and implant, resulting in the reduction of bone degradation due to stress and periprosthetic bone fracture. Titanium has greater stiffness than the human bone, which can result in bone deterioration in the case of increased load.

Pigments and Additives

Titanium is mostly refined into titanium dioxide, which is a white permanent pigment. This white pigment is used in papers, toothpaste, plastics, and paints. Paints with titanium dioxide perform better in severe temperatures and humid environments. It also serves its purpose in cement, optical opacities in papers, and gemstones. This is also added to graphite composite finishing rods and golf clubs to increase their strength. Titanium dioxide is a chemically inert compound that is resistant to corrosion and does not fade in sunlight. It also has a very opaque appearance, which makes it suitable for use as pigments in the manufacturing of the majority of household plastics. In addition to significant uses as a pigment, titanium dioxide is also used in sunscreens due to its high refractive index and optical dispersion.

Aerospace Industry

Titanium has high corrosion resistance, high fatigue resistance, high tensile strength to density ratio, high crack resistance, and the ability to withstand high temperature. It is considered the ideal material for manufacturing aircraft, missiles, and armor plating. It is utilized in the manufacturing of critical structural parts, landing gear, exhaust ducts, firewalls, and hydraulic systems. In fact, titanium accounts for almost 50% of materials used in an aircraft. The titanium alloy used consists of aluminum, nickel zirconium, vanadium, and other elements.

Jewelry

Titanium is durable and biologically inert, which has increased its popularity in the jewelry industry. Its inertness makes it a popular choice among people with allergies and among people who live in a humid environment. Its durability, dent resistance, light weight, and corrosion resistance make it useful for manufacturing wristwatches and watch cases. Some artists use titanium for fabricating sculptures and other decorative objects. Titanium is also mixed with gold to produce a 24-karat gold alloy, which results in an alloy harder than pure 24-karat gold. Anodized titanium has optical interference fringes and a variety of bright colors, which make it popular for body piercings too.

Marine Industry

Titanium is a corrosion-resistant material; this makes it ideal for use in the marine industry. Naval ships' hulks are made of titanium alloys because of their corrosion resistance to seawater. Titanium is also used to manufacture propeller shafts, heat exchanges, rigging, heat chillers for saltwater aquariums, drivers’ knives and finishing lines, and leaders. Additionally, it is used in housing and ocean deployed surveillance equipment and monitoring devices.

Automotive Industry

Titanium is used in the automotive industry, particularly where low weight and high strength rigidity are required. It is also cost-effective considering metal is generally too expensive to be used in huge amounts. It is used to manufacture exhaust and intake valves inside engines because of its heat resistance and high strength.

Chapter 8: Health and Environmental Effects of Titanium Metal

Titanium has a great affinity for oxygen and other elements, so it is impossible to find titanium in a metallic state in nature. The titanium concentration in the air of urban areas is below 0.1 µg/m3 However, in some areas, especially where factories are close, 1.0 µg/m3 has been reported too. This concentration affects drinking water supplies and food items. Because of this, the intake of titanium by humans has been reported from 300 µg/day to 2 mg/day.

Clinical studies on animals and humans have shown that if titanium dioxide is inhaled, it remains biologically inert. The possibility of weak fibrosis due to exposure to titanium dust is more likely to be caused by concomitant exposure to other components present in titanium dust rather than titanium dioxide. However, in animals, titanium nitrides, titanium hydrides, and titanium carbides can cause fibrogenic effects. These compounds of titanium can also cause kidney and liver dystrophy in animals as well. However, titanium tetrachloride has a different effect on both humans and animals. In humans, this compound can cause skin burns and strong irritation in the eyes. Additionally, titanium in powdered form is known to induce lymphosarcoma and fibrosarcoma, but only in rats when they are injected. There is no evidence that it has any carcinogenic effect in humans. In addition to this, titanium has been frequently used in lung clearance studies. The studies have not shown any detrimental effects of titanium dioxide in the lungs.

Titanium has a dominant role in the implant and prosthetic industry. The studies on animals and humans have shown that the presence of titanium in implants and prosthesis have no effect on human tissues. The osseous and soft tissue present in animal and human bodies has extreme tolerance of titanium. This means there are no reports of irritation or delay in healing of wounds, and there is an encapsulation of the metal by fibrous tissues. Titanium compounds such as dioxides, oxides, tannates, and salicylates play an important role in dermatological and cosmetic formulations. They do not show any adverse effects on human skin. However, exposure to various titanium compounds has been linked to slight pulmonary fibrosis.

Conclusion

• Titanium is a shiny gray metal with a low corrosion rate and high strength.
• It is a very useful metal for its refractory properties due to its high melting and boiling points.
• Titanium metal compounds include oxides, sulfides, alkoxides, nitrides, carbides, etc.
• Titanium metal is fabricated by a method called the ‘Kroll method’.
• Various industries, including medical, aerospace, and automotive, use titanium metal and its alloys due to its high strength.
• Some titanium compounds may have adverse effects on health and the environment.

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