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Introduction
This article will take an in-depth look at data acquisition
systems.
The article will bring more information to topics such as:
Principles of Data Acquisition Systems
Data Acquisition Systems Measurements, Modules & Methods
Types of Data Acquisition Systems and Data Acquisition
Signals
Applications and Benefits of Data Acquisition Systems
And Much More…
Chapter 1: Principles of Data Acquisition Systems
This chapter will discuss what data acquisition systems are,
their components, and their measurements.
What is a Data Acquisition System?
A data acquisition system is a system that comprises sensors,
measurement devices, and a computer. A data acquisition system
is used for processing acquired data, which involves collecting
the information required to understand electrical or physical
phenomena.
This information is required for understanding how a data
acquisition system performs. As an example, a data acquisition
system can be used when testing the temperature of a heating
coil used for heating an object to a specific temperature. The
level of success of the heating coil is understood by measuring
its temperature. That simple task of measuring and recording
temperature is called data acquisition and is achieved using a
data acquisition system. Another example where a data
acquisition system comes into play is when measuring and
recording the potential difference in current flow across an
electrical resistor.
The reason for measuring and recording the electrical and
physical phenomena using a data acquisition system is to enable
further analysis. A data acquisition system uses software to
perform its functions and it is capable of quickly processing
and storing data in many ways. Data acquisition systems can
capture data from an actual system and store the data in a
simple format that is easily retrievable for further engineering
or scientific review.
Data acquisition systems are either handheld, or they can be
remotely operated. Handheld data acquisition systems are used
when there is a requirement for taking readings of a specimen
which can be physically interacted with. When direct human
interaction with an object is not possible or necessary, this is
when remote data acquisition systems are used to take remote DAQ
(data acquisition) measurements.
Basic Components of a Data Acquisition System
The physical phenomena or physical characteristics to be
measured comes first in the data collecting process.
Temperature, light intensity, vibration, gas pressure, fluid
movement, and force are a few examples of factors often
considered in a DAQ system. No matter what kind of physical
property has to be measured, the physical state must first be
unified into a form that a data acquisition system can sample.
These alterations are carried out by sensors. An ensemble of
software and hardware known as a data acquisition system enables
the measurement or control of physical properties of objects in
the real world. A full data acquisition system consists of DAQ
hardware, sensors, actuators, signal conditioning gear, and a
computer running DAQ software. Furthermore, an independent
timing system must be used if timing is important (for example,
in event mode DAQ systems).
Sensors
Sensors or transducers serve the purpose of interacting with the
subject measured. They interact with the subject either directly
or indirectly, or as defined in other words, contact or
non-contact. These tools convert the physical values to produce
an output of electrical signals. There are many different types
of sensors that are utilized in data acquisition systems
depending on the nature of their application. For instance, when
the temperature is being measured, a temperature sensor is used,
but when measuring light, a photovoltaic sensor is used.
These tools both have a common function of converting analog
signals like temperatures, light, speed, etc. into digital
signals that are compatible with a computer. The sensors
utilized by DAQ systems are high-quality sensors that are
capable of giving accurate readings with minimal or no noise.
Transmission/Signal Conditioners
The electrical signals obtained from the sensors may contain
noise or other interference and need modification; they could
not be used directly as is. The signals might also be weak to a
point where the data acquisition system cannot measure them.
Hence additional circuitry is utilized for optimizing the
signals. This additional circuitry is known as a signal
conditioner. Signal conditioning then is the process of
optimizing the signals.
The signal conditioner makes use of filter circuits for
separating the noise from the real signal and utilizes an
amplification circuit for strengthening weak signals. These are
two of the most common functions that are served by the
transmission or signal conditioners. A suitable signal
conditioning circuit can achieve additional processes like
linearization, calibration, and excitation. The selection of the
signal conditioning circuit is largely dependent on the
characteristics of the sensors employed in the DAQ system.
Data Acquisition Hardware
Data acquisition hardware is the hardware that is connected
between the sensors and the computer. This hardware is either
connected to the computer employing a USB port or through the
PCI-express ports that are found on the motherboard. The data
acquisition hardware serves to take in the signals from the
sensors and then convert them into digital signals that are
readable by the computer. This is the function that DAQ hardware
performs.
Analog-to-Digital Converters
This component of the DAQ system serves to convert analog
signals into digital signals. This component is at the core of
all data acquisition systems. This chip serves to take data from
the environment and convert it into separate levels that can be
interpreted by a processor. These distinct levels correspond to
the smallest detectable change that can be found in the measured
signal.
The higher the number of bits of an analog to digital converter,
the greater the number of discrete levels that can be used for
representing an analog signal, and the greater the resolution of
the analog to the digital converter. The resolution of an analog
to digital converter is essentially comparable to the marks that
are found on a measuring stick.
Using a metric measuring stick, a measuring stick that has mm
marks has greater resolution than that with only cm marks; here
in the United States, a yardstick featuring the specific inches
would show greater resolution than one only broken down by
individual feet. The need for mm or cm depends on what is being
measured – the same is true for analog to digital converter
resolution.
Digital-to-Analog Converters
The function of this component of a DAQ system is to provide
support for inputting, as well as outputting, binary signals.
Single-Ended Input Converters
This component has the function of providing support for taking
input from single-ended wires.
Some types of DAQ hardware are standalone, capable of operating
on their own without the requirement of a connection to a
computer. This is possible through the use of a processor as
well as a computing unit that is embedded within the hardware of
the data acquisition system. Standalone data acquisition
hardware is capable of helping users with real-time data
representation. Prime examples of DAQ systems that can work
without a computer are standalone oscilloscopes, as well as
other data logger devices used to measure specific information.
Data Sampling Rate
The sampling rate, known as the frequency or F, is determined by the nature of the process being monitored and common sense. With digital data acquisition, transducers output signals to be digitized by a computer. Unfortunately, a computer is unable to store continuous analog time waveforms and breaks the signals into samples that are stored. In essence, the sampling rate or sampling frequency is the number of samples per unit of time taken from a continuous signal, which can be measured in hertz.
An aspect of data acquisition that can influence the interpretation of a trend is the sampling rate. If the sampling rate is too slow, important trends may be missed or hidden. Years ago, the excuse was that a computer did not have enough disk space or memory, which is not applicable to modern day computers.
An understanding of sampling rates is essential to an understanding of data acquisition. In many cases, clients want fast sampling rates when they are doing short term testing. More accurate interpretations of data can be acquired through long term examinations of processes with sampling rates of a second or less with data storage taking several forms depending on the needs of the client.
Computers
The computer is the end piece of a DAQ chain. The computer’s
function is to gather all data that comes through the DAQ
hardware for further analysis. However, it is not enough to
simply connect the DAQ hardware to a computer in order to make
sense of the data collected. DAQ software that uses data from
the DAQ hardware is still required for creating readable and
meaningful results. This data acquisition software acts as the
layer between the DAQ hardware and the user. With the data that
is collected from the DAQ, computers are critical to performing
higher-order computations.
Chapter 2: Data Acquisition Systems Measurements, Modules &
Methods
This chapter will discuss the measurements, modules and methods
used in data acquisition systems.
Data Acquisition Systems Measurements
Data acquisition systems are capable of making many different
types of measurements. These types of measurements are typically
derived from analog signals. Before their transfer into any
computer system, they must be in a digital format.
Many different parameters can be measured using a data
acquisition system including the following:
Current
Voltage
Strain
Frequency or time interval
Pressure
Temperature
Distance
Vibration
Angles
Digital signals
Weight
Separate modules or sensors may be utilized for measuring
different, specific parameters, although several multi-input,
general-purpose data acquisition devices can interface to these
various sensors. The types of sensors that are utilized in data
acquisition measurements usually return values of voltage in
particular since these readings can be converted into
measurements of temperature, displacement, or anything that is
being studied.
Often a data acquisition module, as well as a sensor, will make
use of a transducer of some kind in order to create a base
measurement parameter- like voltage. This measurement is known
as the primary measurement. It will then be converted into
subsequent parameters as required. In this way, data acquisition
modules are capable of measuring almost any required parameters
which may need to be made or obtained.
As a result, the vast array of DAQ modules which exist are
capable of measuring almost anything possible. Additionally,
they can meet very specific requirements. However, sensor
designs requiring special DAS modules can also be obtained. In
this way, the customization of these data acquisition modules
for specific measurements with specific sensors can still be
made.
Data Acquisition Cards and Modules
Many data acquisition systems have rack modules that are filled
with cards for providing the different measurement functions
that are needed. These cards obviously must conform to the
overall system that is utilized in both electrical and
mechanical interfaces. The rack systems used are often
standardized and the modules employed are often available from
many manufacturers, thereby making their selection more
convenient.
Data Acquisition Software
Specialized data acquisition software required for acquiring,
storing, and processing data in a logical format is available.
Software used in data acquisition systems can be written in
various languages and can be written for a specific application
in mind. Alternatively, there are many different data
acquisition software packages available that can be utilized
instead.
The benefit of proprietary data acquisition software packages is
that all of the development has already been undertaken and the
system has already been deployed; therefore, most problems have
already been encountered. Even though a charge for the software
maintenance is applicable, this will be considerably less than
trying to do maintenance on a similar home-grown data
acquisition software package.
Accordingly, most companies choose to buy their data acquisition
software and then utilize this in developing tests for their own
particular use.
Data Acquisition Transducer Signals
Transducers are the electronic devices that change energy from a
particular source into an electronic signal. Depending on the
specific variable that the DAQ system is designed to measure,
the output signal varies. Data acquisition systems are usually
discussed in terms of the output signal they generate. The
output signal generated may be digital or analog.
Data Acquisition Methods Used by DAQ Systems
Some of the data acquisition techniques include:
Bit-Stream Disk-to-Image File
This is a data acquisition method used in some very specific
data acquisition systems. This method is mostly utilized by
forensic investigators. It is a flexible method of data
acquisition, and it allows the creation of one or more copies of
an original drive. More importantly, it also copies everything
from the original drive, including interconnected sectors or
clusters, in order to retrieve files that were subsequently
deleted or tampered with. Some popular tools used for reading
the disk-to-image files include EnCase, X-Ways, FTK, ILook
Investigator, etc.
Bit-Stream Disk-to-Disk
Sometimes, when the creation of a bit-stream disk-to-image file
is not possible due to software or hardware errors or other
incompatibilities, a bit-stream disk-to-disk method is used
instead. When investigators face such issues mentioned above
while they try to acquire data from older drives, they create a
bit-stream disk-to-disk copy of the original drive or disk. The
tools that are used to create the disk-to-disk bit-stream copy
of an original tampered drive include EnCase, SafeBack, as well
as Norton Ghost. These tools are capable of modifying the target
disk’s geometry for matching the data copied from the original
suspect drive.
Logical Acquisition
This method is used for gathering only the files that are
required for an individual case investigation. For example, the
collection of Outlook .ost or .pst files in email
investigations, and the collection of specific records from a
large RAID server would be utilized through this procedure.
Sparse Acquisition
This method is similar to logical acquisition. With this method,
investigators are capable of collecting fragments of unallocated
data. This method is mostly used when there is no necessity of
inspecting the whole drive.
Considerations When Setting up a Data Acquisition System
Some of the considerations when setting up data acquisition
systems include:
Runtime Without Interruption
Prior to anything else, you must be certain of how long you want
the system to operate without interruption. The choice of
hardware and operating system will be significantly influenced
by this period of time. Additionally, there is a great
likelihood that the data flow may become backed up, along with
subsequent errors resulting, due to buffer overflow if the
processor is under stress from having to keep up with the tasks
continually. The system's hard drive and battery will begin to
wear down, eventually stopping after a decade or sooner.
Therefore, the first factor to take into account when
considering a DAQ system is the length of time you’ll want the
system to operate. Only then, will you be able to move on to
consider the other things you’ll need to think about (as listed
below) when choosing the best option for your needs.
Power Source
The power source is the next item to think about. You must
determine if the system will have access to a reliable power
supply or if the DAQ system will require a secondary power
source. Choosing a secondary source is obviously less of an
issue the more reliable the primary power source may be. Some
common back-up power sources include generators, batteries or
solar panels. Where multiple, reliable energy sources are
available, performing power calculations is advisable; when
doing so, it is best to be cautious and monitor power when
working under actual conditions.
Data Transmission
The transfer of data from the system should be taken into
account next. You must determine if the data collection system
requires local data storage or remote data transmission of data
from the field or the facility. Additionally, you must choose
the system based on how much storage you will need. Furthermore,
you must decide if you want the system to still have the ability
to store and forward data in order to buffer the collected data
while the link is unavailable, and continue sending when it
becomes accessible.
System Access
You must be explicit when setting up a data acquisition system
on whether you will require remote access before you configure
the system or determine if it is functioning properly. In
today’s work-from-home environment, it is advisable to build up
a system for data collection that can be accessible from a
distance. Additionally, it is possible that you may require
access to the system in order to change the system's acquisition
parameters itself.
Data Acquisition and Data Processing
When setting up a data acquisition system, you must decide in
advance whether you merely need to gather raw data or whether
you need to treat the data in a certain way after the
acquisition process. When choosing the best data collecting
system, this issue must be taken into account. A straightforward
system would be enough if all you needed to do was collect data
from the process. However, a CPU would be necessary in the
system if you needed it to execute some specialized functions,
such as filtering, Windowing, and other operations.
Input Channels
Finally, you must examine your input channel. You must be
certain of the effectiveness of your input channel. The main
elements to take into account in this case are the sample rates,
the data to be obtained from the signals, the synchronization of
signals, and the range of signals considered. Taking into
account each of these aspects will help you select the best data
collecting system for your needs.
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Chapter 3: Types of Data Acquisition Systems and Data
Acquisition Signals
This chapter will discuss the different types of data
acquisition systems and data acquisition signals.
Types of Data Acquisition Systems
The types of data acquisition systems include:
Data Loggers
Data logging is the process whereby collected data is recorded.
This data is collected over a defined amount of time. data
loggers tend to be small and they are mostly used for the
measurement of relatively small signals. Many of these data
acquisition systems are intended for the collection of data over
a long period of time.
Depending on the type of application, the data can be used to
read voltages, temperature measurements, humidity levels,
currents, or other signals of interest. Data loggers are
self-contained data acquisition systems with built-in processors
and predefined software embedded in the unit.
A data logger is capable of running as a standalone device. Data
loggers are popular due to their portability as well as ease of
use for specific tasks. Every data logger consists of local
storage capacity for saving data. Some data loggers include SD
(secure digital) slots as a means for providing additional
memory through the utilization of memory cards (featuring memory
chips). The data may be collected and temporarily stored on an
individual data logger and then sent via a data link ( a
removable memory card) at regular, convenient intervals. Some
web-enabled data loggers can even be configured to directly
share their data over a network.
Some data loggers are battery-powered for additional
portability. By definition, a data logger will consist of a more
limited set of inputs and tend to have a more basic format like
the already mentioned signals including temperature, current,
voltage, etc. Data loggers can also be used for the collection
of geological data for long-term monitoring of many items.
Data Acquisition Devices
Data acquisition devices contain signal conditioning circuitry,
as well as an analog-to-digital converter. However, they need to
be connected to a computer in order to function. Data
acquisition devices are a popular choice because they are very
flexible and very useful in various applications. Data
acquisition devices are DAQ systems that are more complex than
data logging systems. However, they do not have the complexity
of a full rack-based DAQ system. Data acquisition devices are
likely to utilize single devices to which all the sensors can be
connected into a full DAQ system.
Data acquisition devices are capable of providing more
functionality than data loggers and they are less costly than
full rack-based systems. Most of these items are USB data
acquisition systems. There are plug-in devices that are used in
data acquisition. Users of these devices can either use
predefined data acquisition software such as DAQami, or they can
also make use of a programming environment like C++, MATLAB,
Python, and DASYLab. Data acquisition devices offer a
customizable solution for unique applications, with different
BUS options as well as the flexibility to function as a part of
a larger DAS system.
Modular Data Acquisition Systems
Modular data acquisition systems are designed for high-channel
count devices offering many input channels, as well as complex
systems that require integration and synchronization of many
types of sensors. These systems are utilized in more demanding
situations. The integration and use of these systems are more
complex, but they are extremely flexible. These modular systems
are the most expensive data acquisition option. However, based
on the complex functions performed, many DAQ systems contain
features that can only be provided by a modular data acquisition
system like PXI.
Both static, as well as dynamic measurements, can be performed
by these DAQ systems; therefore, they are capable of both
low-speed and high-speed sampling.
Modular data acquisition systems usually have a high-powered
computer associated with them due to the demands that are placed
on them. The computer associated with these systems is either
built-in or connected to them. In this way, data acquisition
systems offer maximum as well as flexible performance, but this
comes with an additional cost. Modular data acquisition systems
can come in larger racks although many compact DAQ systems are
also available.
Data Acquisition Signal Used by DAQ Systems
Some of the data acquisition techniques include:
Voltage Signals
The voltage signal is the most commonly used signal employed by
DAQ systems. Strain gauge bridge circuits, thermocouples, and
gas concentration probes, for example, all produce a voltage
signal. Data acquisition hardware conditions the signal and then
converts it into a digital number by employing an
analog-to-digital converter. This digital value is stored by the
computer. Data acquisition systems are often able to directly
handle low-voltage inputs that are, to say, a few millivolts up
to a few volts.
Current Signals
Current is usually used for transmitting signals in noisy
environments since it is much less affected by environmental
background noise. A data acquisition system measures the amount
of current that flows and then stores the value in a computer
for analysis.
Power Signals
Signals from electrical power supplies can be monitored when the
current signal is sensed with a current-sensing resistor, and
resistive dividers are used to break down high voltage signals.
The current-sensing resistor will provide data to the data
acquisition system for measurement and storage so that the power
signals can be monitored.
Rather, the voltage depends on the difference in temperature
between its two wires (made of two different metals) collected
at the thermocouple junction (where the wires meet) and the
temperature of the cold junction (the point where the
thermocouple wires terminate).
Thermocouples
These sensors provide a low voltage signal that is typically a
few millivolts. The relationship between the voltage and the
temperature is non-linear.
thermocouple
The accuracy of the thermocouple will vary according to the type
of thermocouple being used.
Resistance
Resistance measurements are performed employing a current source
together with a normal voltage input. The current flows through
an unknown resistance and the voltage drop across that
resistance is measured. This voltage drop is then recorded by
the data acquisition system.
Strain Gauge Bridges
These bridges provide a special case of resistance measurement.
Strain gauge bridges operate on the principle of electrical
conductance and its dependence on the geometry of the conductor.
A Wheatstone bridge arrangement is utilized for measuring the
resistance of the gauge, which will vary as the gauge is
distorted by an applied strain. They measure the small
differences between a Wheatstone bridge’s two circuits.
Consequently, the measurement of strain is often concerned with
the measurement of deviations from the initial values, instead
of absolute measurements. The initial values therefore must be
known. These may be sufficiently larger than the subsequent
changes that occur in the bridge imbalance caused by imposed
strain. Therefore an analog to digital converter with high
resolution is employed to give the dynamic signal range that is
required.
Digital Signals
Digital outputs produced by switches and so on are treated as
logic signals. These signals are sensed as on(1) or off(0). For
volt-free contacts, where there is no switching of external
voltage, a small sensing voltage is applied for determining the
switch state. This will usually be 5V to be compatible with TTL
levels. Where voltage is being switched, the logic state can be
determined by the voltage level itself. The type of input
required is determined by the voltage levels, for example, TTL,
up to 12 V logic or 24 V DC. When the digital signals are
rapidly changing and become pulse trains, counter-timer type
inputs must be considered.
Chapter 4: Applications and Benefits of Data Acquisition Systems
This chapter will discuss the applications and benefits of data
acquisition systems.
Applications of Data Acquisition Systems
These include:
Electronics
Data acquisition systems are utilized in the electronics
industry. They are utilized in the testing of many variables
that are involved in the design of electronics like heat
production, resistance, conductivity, magnetics, etc.
Automotive Industry
Data acquisition devices are utilized in automotive
manufacturing for testing the quality of the parts that are
manufactured.
Imaging
Data acquisition systems are used for the quality testing of
imaging equipment like a photographic lens or video camera, as
well as with scientific equipment such as scanners, and
microscopes.
Laser Technology
Data acquisition systems are utilized in laser technology to
test laser performance, light intensity, and color
.
Sonar-Radar
Data acquisition systems use remote sensing technologies within
radar and sonar applications to calculate their efficiency and
effectiveness.
Industrial Machines
Industrial machines are created to perform multiple times.
Therefore, repeatability is of critical importance. Data
acquisition systems are often utilized for testing these
machines for their tolerance to repetitive forces.
Non-Destructive Testing
Data acquisition systems are utilized in the non-destructive
testing of structures, geology, seismology, ultrasonic
measurements, as well as with the analysis of acoustic emission
phenomena.
Gas Detection
Gas detectors are used to find leaks using tracer gases, such
hydrogen and helium. Once a chamber is filled with the trace gas,
the loss of gas is measured with a mass spectrometer that detects
the trace gas. Gas detection is used to determine the amount and
composition of the gas being lost from a system or machine.
Benefits of Data Acquisition Systems
The advantages of data acquisition systems include:
Accuracy
Data acquisition systems maximize the absolute accuracy of
measurements.
Flexibility
Data acquisition systems make it possible to build
mixed-measurement systems that are tailored to specific needs.
Scalable
There are a variety of hardware options available ranging from
processing just limited data to the control of multiple data
acquisition systems coordinated to be part of one synchronized
application.
High Efficiency and Reliability of Processes
Data acquisition systems are utilized in many important
facilities around the world for the monitoring of vital
parameters. The information that is collected by data
acquisition systems is used for enhancing efficiency, ensuring
reliability, as well as making sure that the machinery is safely
operating.
Faster Analysis and Resolution of Problems
display measurements without delay. This is an advantage to
technicians since it helps them intervene faster if there are
any problems encountered and make any necessary repairs to
ensure optimal performance in no time.
Reduced Data Redundancy
Top data acquisition systems make it possible for companies to
make a reduction in data duplication and adopt technology while
making it simpler to analyze the obtained information. These
solutions make it possible for the employees to work without
having disturbances that may hamper their productivity.
Decrease in Update Errors
Data acquisition systems allow the automation of data entry
processes that were previously done manually. Automation reduces
mistakes by eliminating human error as well as providing
additional time for staff to perform other duties..
Improved Integration of Data Through Less Reliance on Other
Programs
If fewer programs are interfering in a work process, the process
becomes more agile. Data acquisition systems ensure total
comprehensiveness of information. They also ensure the
correctness of the information without having to depend on other
types of applications.
Improved Access to Data for Users
Data acquisition systems make it possible for users to access
the database, as well as recover information for processing and
analysis.
Supervision of Processes without Human Interaction
With a data acquisition system, there can be tracking and
monitoring of a company’s various procedures in order to
identify problems and resolve issues quicker.
Improved Data Security
Since the process of capturing data is now automated and
objective, the human factor has been eliminated. Therefore, the
security risks that are associated with data storage, analysis,
and management are thereby reduced.
Cost-Effectiveness
Since the entry of data is faster, the required space takes up
less memory, and this information can be recovered without any
delay through DAQ systems, work processes become more
cost-effective.
Quality Control
Data acquisition systems are capable of confirming that a system
is meeting the design specifications so that a product meets the
needs of the user. Furthermore, these systems provide testing
capabilities to see whether a product has the required quality
prior to production. They also provide a means to analyze those
products that are defective.
Data Acquisition Systems are Highly Versatile
Data acquisition systems are available as multi-purpose devices.
They can have an all-in-one configuration with multiple
measuring modes that are capable of measuring multiple
properties. They can also be single-purpose devices that will
only measure a single property.
Better File Processing and Transfer Capabilities
The data that is collected through a data acquisition system is
stored on a computer where it can be analyzed or processed based
on the convenience of the user. Also, any additional transfer of
data to other devices that may be required is made easier
through a computer.
Data acquisition systems allow one to obtain valuable
information without bias for improving the performance of a
company and for increasing their economic well-being.
Data acquisition systems offer greater control over the
processes of an organization as well as a quicker response to
any failure that might occur. Data acquisition systems not only
work to improve and maximize an organization’s efficiency, they
also work to maximize the quality of their products and
services.
Conclusion
Data acquisition systems are a process for capturing, storing,
analyzing, and manipulating data. The data is acquired through
different techniques including voltage signals, current signals,
power signals, etc. There are different types of data
acquisition systems utilized. Some of them are multipurpose
devices with an all-in-one configuration whereas some are
single-purpose devices designed for measuring data from single
parameters. Data acquisition systems can be applied in a wide
variety of industries including the automobile industry, the
electronics industry, laser technology, etc. These systems offer
so many benefits. They are cost-effective, fast, versatile, and
reliable. Data acquisition systems are a very efficient and
convenient way of recording data for further analysis. Data
acquisition systems not only improve data security since the
process of capturing data is now automated, they improve access
to data for the users while reducing errors.
Leading Manufacturers and Suppliers
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